Rebel Slave Leader Against Romans

Major slave rebellion confronting the Roman Republic (73–71 BC)

Tertiary Servile War
Part of the Servile Wars
Italia and surrounding territory, 218 BC
Date 73–71 BC Location Roman Italia Result Roman victory
Belligerents
Rebel slaves	Roman Republic
Commanders and leaders
Spartacus (MIA) Crixus † Gannicus † Oenomaus † Castus †	Marcus Licinius Crassus Pompey Lucius Gellius Quintus Marcius Rufus Publius Varinius Gaius Claudius Glaber † Gaius Cassius Longinus Gnaeus Manlius Marcus Lucullus
Strength
120,000 escaped slaves and gladiators, including non-combatants; total number of combatants unknown	3,000+ militia 8 Roman legions of iv,000–6,000 infantrymen + auxiliaries Total: 32,000–48,000 infantry + auxiliaries12,000 garrison troops (limerick unknown)
Casualties and losses
30,000 killed past Gellius, six,000 crucified by Crassus, 5,000 crucified by Pompey	~20,000 killed

The Third Servile War, too called the Gladiator State of war and the State of war of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last in a series of slave rebellions against the Roman Commonwealth known as the Servile Wars. This third rebellion was the only one that direct threatened the Roman heartland of Italy. It was specially alarming to Rome because its military seemed powerless to suppress it.

The revolt began in 73 BC, with the escape of around 70 slave gladiators from a gladiator schoolhouse in Capua. They easily defeated the small Roman force sent to recapture them, and inside 2 years, they had been joined by some 120,000 men, women, and children. The able-bodied adults of this big group were a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed they could withstand or defeat the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols to the Roman militia and even to trained Roman legions under consular control. This army of slaves roamed across Italian republic, raiding estates and towns with relative impunity, sometimes dividing into separate simply connected bands with several leaders, including the famous quondam gladiator Spartacus.

The Roman Senate grew increasingly alarmed at the slave-army'southward depredations and connected war machine successes. Somewhen Rome fielded an army of eight legions under the harsh only effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus that destroyed the army of slaves in 71 BC. This happened after a long and biting fighting retreat before the legions of Crassus and afterward the rebels realized that the legions of Pompey and Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus were moving in to entrap them. The armies of Spartacus launched their total force against Crassus's legions and were utterly defeated. Of the survivors, some 6,000 were crucified along the Appian Mode.

Plutarch's account of the defection suggests that the slaves simply wished to escape to freedom and leave Roman territory by way of Cisalpine Gaul. Appian and Florus describe the revolt equally a civil war in which the slaves intended to capture the city of Rome. The Third Servile War had significant and far-reaching effects on Rome'south broader history. Pompey and Crassus exploited their successes to further their political careers, using their public acclaim and the unsaid threat of their legions to sway the consular elections of lxx BC in their favor. Their actions equally consuls greatly furthered the subversion of Roman political institutions and contributed to the transformation of the Roman Democracy into the Roman Empire.

Groundwork [edit]

To varying degrees throughout Roman history, the existence of a pool of inexpensive labor in the grade of slaves was an of import factor in the economic system. Slaves were acquired for the Roman workforce through a diversity of means, including purchase from foreign merchants and the enslavement of foreign populations through armed forces conquest.^[1] With Rome's heavy involvement in wars of conquest in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, from tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves at a time were imported into the Roman economy from various European and Mediterranean acquisitions.^[2] While there was limited utilise for slaves every bit servants, craftsmen, and personal attendants, vast numbers of slaves worked in mines and on the agricultural lands of Sicily and southern Italy.^[3]

For the about role, slaves were treated harshly and oppressively during the Roman republican period. Under Republican law, a slave was property, non a person. Owners could abuse, injure or even impale their own slaves without legal consequence. While in that location were many grades and types of slaves, the lowest—and most numerous—grades who worked in the fields and mines were subject to a life of hard concrete labor.^[4]

The large size and oppressive handling of the slave population led to rebellions. In 135 BC and 104 BC, the First and Second Servile Wars erupted in Sicily, where modest bands of rebels found tens of thousands of willing followers wishing to escape the oppressive life of a Roman slave. While these were considered serious civil disturbances past the Roman Senate, taking years and direct military intervention to quell, they were never considered a serious threat to the Democracy. The Roman heartland had never seen a slave insurgence, nor had slaves always been seen as a potential threat to the urban center of Rome. This changed with the 3rd Servile War.

Get-go of the revolt (73 BC) [edit]

Capuan revolt [edit]

In the Roman Republic of the 1st century BC, gladiatorial games were ane of the more than popular forms of entertainment. In order to supply gladiators for the contests, several preparation schools, or ludi, were established throughout Italy.^[5] In these schools, prisoners of state of war and condemned criminals—who were considered slaves—were taught the skills required to fight in gladiatorial games.^[6] In 73 BC, a grouping of some 200 gladiators in the Capuan school owned by Lentulus Batiatus plotted an escape. When their plot was betrayed, a force of most seventy men seized kitchen implements ("choppers and spits"), fought their way free from the schoolhouse, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor.^[7]

Once costless, the escaped gladiators chose leaders from their number, selecting two Gallic slaves—Crixus and Oenomaus—and Spartacus, who was said either to exist a Thracian auxiliary from the Roman legions later condemned to slavery, or a captive taken by the legions.^[8] There is some question as to Spartacus's nationality. A Thraex was a type of gladiator in Rome, so "Thracian" may merely refer to the style of gladiatorial gainsay in which he was trained.^[9] On the other paw, names virtually identical to Spartacus were recorded among five out of twenty Thracian Odrysae rulers of Bosporan kingdom beginning with Spartokos I the founder of the Spartocid dynasty. The name came from the Thracian words *sparas "spear, lance" and *takos "famous" and thus meant "renowned by the spear".^{[10] [eleven]}

These escaped slaves were able to defeat a minor force of troops sent after them from Capua, and equip themselves with captured military equipment equally well every bit their gladiatorial weapons.^[12] Sources are somewhat contradictory on the gild of events immediately following the escape, but they generally agree that this band of escaped gladiators plundered the region surrounding Capua, recruited many other slaves into their ranks, and eventually retired to a more than defensible position on Mount Vesuvius.^[13]

Defeat of the praetorian armies [edit]

Initial movements of Roman (red) and Slave (blueish) forces from the Capuan revolt to the cease of wintertime 73–72 BC. Insert: Vesuvius area.

As the revolt and raids were occurring in Campania, which was a holiday region of the rich and influential in Rome, and the location of many estates, the defection speedily came to the attention of Roman authorities. They initially viewed the revolt more than as a major crime wave than an armed rebellion.

Yet, subsequently that year, Rome dispatched a armed forces force under praetorian authority to put down the rebellion.^[14] A Roman praetor, Gaius Claudius Glaber, gathered a forcefulness of three,000 men, not regular legions, simply a militia "picked upward in haste and at random, for the Romans did non consider this a state of war notwithstanding, just a raid, something like an attack of robbery."^[15] Glaber'southward forces besieged the slaves on Mountain Vesuvius, blocking the only known way down the mountain. With the slaves thus contained, Glaber was content to wait until starvation forced the slaves to surrender.

While the slaves lacked armed services training, Spartacus' forces displayed ingenuity in their use of available local tools, and in their utilize of clever, unorthodox tactics when facing the disciplined Roman infantry.^[16] In response to Glaber's siege, Spartacus' men fabricated ropes and ladders from vines and trees growing on the slopes of Vesuvius and used them to rappel down the cliffs on the side of the mountain opposite Glaber'due south forces. They moved around the base of Vesuvius, outflanked the army, and annihilated Glaber's men.^[17]

A 2nd trek, under the praetor Publius Varinius, was then dispatched against Spartacus. For some reason, Varinius seems to have split up his forces under the command of his subordinates Furius and Cossinius. Plutarch mentions that Furius allowable some 2,000 men, but neither the strength of the remaining forces, nor whether the expedition was composed of militia or legions, appears to be known. These forces were as well defeated by the army of escaped slaves: Cossinius was killed, Varinius was well-nigh captured, and the equipment of the armies was seized by the slaves.^[18]

With these victories, more and more than slaves flocked to the Spartacan forces, every bit did "many of the herdsmen and shepherds of the region", swelling their ranks to some 70,000.^[nineteen] The rebel slaves spent the winter of 73–72 BC training, arming and equipping their new recruits, and expanding their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola, Nuceria, Thurii and Metapontum.^[20]

The victories of the rebel slaves did non come without a toll. At some time during these events, one of their leaders, Oenomaus, was lost—presumably in battle—and is non mentioned farther in the histories.^[21]

Motivation and leadership of the escaped slaves [edit]

Spartacus, by Denis Foyatier, c. 1830, displayed at the Louvre. An example of a modern heroic depiction of Spartacus.

Past the terminate of 73 BC, Spartacus and Crixus were in control of a big group of armed men with a proven ability to withstand Roman armies. What they intended to do with this force is somewhat hard for modern readers to determine. Since the Tertiary Servile War was ultimately an unsuccessful rebellion, no firsthand account of the slaves' motives and goals exists, and historians writing about the state of war propose contradictory theories.

Many pop modern accounts of the war claim that at that place was a factional split in the escaped slaves between those nether Spartacus, who wished to escape over the Alps to freedom, and those under Crixus, who wished to stay in southern Italy to continue raiding and plundering. This appears to be an interpretation of events based on the following: the regions that Florus lists equally being raided by the slaves include Thurii and Metapontum, which are geographically distant from Nola and Nuceria.^[22]

This indicates the existence of two groups: Lucius Gellius eventually attacked Crixus and a group of some 30,000 followers who are described as being separate from the main group under Spartacus.^[22] Plutarch describes the desire of some of the escaped slaves to plunder Italy, rather than escape over the Alps.^[23] While this factional split is not contradicted by classical sources, there does not seem to exist any direct evidence to support it.

Fictional accounts sometimes portray the rebelling slaves every bit ancient Roman freedom fighters, struggling to change a corrupt Roman guild and to end the Roman institution of slavery. Although this is not contradicted by classical historians, no historical account mentions that the goal of the rebel slaves was to end slavery in the Democracy, nor practice whatsoever of the actions of rebel leaders, who themselves committed numerous atrocities, seem specifically aimed at ending slavery.^[24]

Even classical historians, who were writing only years after the events themselves, seem to be divided every bit to what the motives of Spartacus were. Appian and Florus write that he intended to march on Rome itself^[25]—although this may have been no more than than a reflection of Roman fears. If Spartacus did intend to march on Rome, it was a goal he must have later abandoned. Plutarch writes that Spartacus merely wished to escape northwards into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes.^[23]

It is non certain that the slaves were a homogeneous grouping nether the leadership of Spartacus, although this is implied by the Roman historians. Certainly other slave leaders are mentioned—Crixus, Oenomaus, Gannicus, and Castus—and it cannot exist told from the historical evidence whether they were aides, subordinates, or fifty-fifty equals leading groups of their own and traveling in convoy with Spartacus' people.

Defeat of the consular armies (72 BC) [edit]

The events of 72 BC, co-ordinate to Appian's version of events

In the spring of 72 BC, the escaped slaves left their winter encampments and began to move northwards towards Cisalpine Gaul. The Senate, alarmed by the size of the revolt and the defeat of the praetorian armies of Glaber and Varinius, dispatched a pair of consular legions nether the command of Lucius Gellius and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus.^[26] Initially, the consular armies were successful. Gellius engaged a group of nigh 30,000 slaves, under the command of Crixus, near Mount Garganus and killed 2-thirds of the rebels, including Crixus.^[27]

At this point, there is a divergence in the classical sources as to the course of events, which do not stand for until the entry of Marcus Licinius Crassus into the state of war. The 2 most comprehensive (extant) histories of the war by Appian and Plutarch particular very different events. Neither account directly contradicts the other simply simply reports different events, ignoring some events in the other account and reporting events that are unique to that account.

Appian's history [edit]

According to Appian, the battle between Gellius' legions and Crixus' men about Mount Garganus was the starting time of a long and complex serial of military maneuvers that most resulted in the Spartacan forces attacking the urban center of Rome. After his victory over Crixus, Gellius moved northwards, following the main group of slaves nether Spartacus who were heading for Cisalpine Gaul. The regular army of Lentulus was deployed to bar Spartacus' path and the consuls hoped to trap the rebel slaves between them. Spartacus' army met Lentulus' legion, defeated information technology, turned and destroyed Gellius' regular army, forcing the Roman legions to retreat in disarray.^[28]

Appian claims that Spartacus executed some 300 captured Roman soldiers to avenge the expiry of Crixus, forcing them to fight each other to the death as gladiators.^[29] Following this victory, Spartacus pushed northwards with his followers (some 120,000) as fast as he could travel, "having burned all his useless cloth, killed all his prisoners and butchered his pack-animals in society to expedite his movement".^[28]

The defeated consular armies fell dorsum to Rome to regroup while Spartacus' followers moved northwards. The consuls again engaged Spartacus at the Battle of Picenum somewhere in the Picenum region and were defeated once more.^[28] Appian claims that at this signal Spartacus changed his intention of marching on Rome—implying this was Spartacus' goal post-obit the confrontation in Picenum—equally "he did not consider himself fix as yet for that kind of a fight, every bit his whole force was not suitably armed, for no city had joined him just only slaves, deserters, and riff-raff".^[xxx] Spartacus decided to withdraw into southern Italy once more. The serviles seized the town of Thurii and the surrounding countryside, arming themselves, raiding the surrounding territories, trading plunder with merchants for bronze and fe (with which to manufacture more arms) and ambivalent occasionally with Roman forces which were invariably defeated.^[28]

Plutarch's history [edit]

The events of 72 BC, co-ordinate to Plutarch'due south version of events

Plutarch'south clarification of events differs significantly from Appian's. Co-ordinate to Plutarch, afterward the battle betwixt Gellius' legion and Crixus's men (whom Plutarch describes every bit "Germans") well-nigh Mount Garganus, Spartacus' men engaged the legion commanded by Lentulus, defeated it, seized the Roman supplies and equipment, then pushed into northern Italy.^[31] Afterward this defeat, both consuls were relieved of command of their armies by the Roman Senate and recalled to Rome.^[32] Plutarch does not mention Spartacus engaging Gellius' legion at all, nor of Spartacus facing the combined consular legions in Picenum.^[31]

Plutarch then goes on to detail a conflict not mentioned in Appian's history. According to Plutarch, Spartacus' army connected northwards to the region effectually Mutina (modern Modena). At that place, a Roman army of some ten,000 soldiers, led past the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Gaius Cassius Longinus attempted to bar Spartacus' progress and was also defeated.^[33] Plutarch makes no farther mention of events until the initial confrontation between Marcus Licinius Crassus and Spartacus in the spring of 71 BC, omitting the march on Rome and the retreat to Thurii described by Appian.^[32] As Plutarch describes Crassus forcing Spartacus' followers to retreat southwards from Picenum, information technology could be inferred that the rebel slaves approached Picenum from the due south in early on 71 BC, implying that they withdrew from Mutina into southern or central Italian republic for the winter of 72–71 BC. Why they might do so, when there was plainly no reason for them not to escape over the Alps—Spartacus' goal according to Plutarch—is not explained.^[34]

The state of war under Crassus (71 BC) [edit]

The events of early 71 BC. Marcus Licinius Crassus takes command of the Roman legions, confronts Spartacus, and forces the insubordinate slaves to retreat through Lucania to the straits nigh Messina. Plutarch says this occurred in the Picenum region, while Appian places the initial battles between Crassus and Spartacus in the Samnium region.

Crassus takes control of the legions [edit]

Despite the contradictions in the classical sources regarding the events of 72 BC, in that location seems to be general agreement that Spartacus and his followers were in the due south of Italia in early 71 BC. The Senate, alarmed at the obviously unstoppable rebellion, gave the chore of putting it downwardly to Marcus Licinius Crassus.^[32] Crassus had been a field commander under Lucius Cornelius Sulla during the civil war between Sulla and the Marian faction in 82 BC and had served nether Sulla during the dictatorship that followed.^[35]

Crassus was given a praetorship and assigned half-dozen new legions in addition to the two formerly consular legions of Gellius and Lentulus, giving him an estimated army of some 32,000–48,000 trained Roman infantry plus auxiliaries (there being quite a range in the size of Republican legions).^[36] Crassus treated his legions with harsh, even brutal, discipline, reviving the punishment of unit of measurement decimation inside his army. Appian is uncertain whether he decimated the ii consular legions for cowardice when he was appointed their commander or whether he had his entire army decimated for a later defeat (an upshot in which up to four,000 legionaries would have been executed).^[37]

Plutarch just mentions the decimation of 50 legionaries of one accomplice as punishment later Mummius' defeat in the outset confrontation between Crassus and Spartacus.^[38] Regardless of events, Crassus' treatment of his legions proved that "he was more dangerous to them than the enemy" and spurred them on to victory rather than running the risk of displeasing their commander.^[37]

Crassus and Spartacus [edit]

When the forces of Spartacus moved northwards once again, Crassus deployed six of his legions on the borders of the region (Plutarch claims the initial boxing between Crassus' legions and Spartacus' followers occurred near the Picenum region, Appian claims it occurred near the region of Samnium).^{[32] [39]} Crassus detached 2 legions under his legate, Mummius, to maneuver backside Spartacus but gave them orders not to engage the rebels. When an opportunity presented itself, Mummius disobeyed, attacked the Spartacist forces and was routed.^[38] Despite this initial loss, Crassus engaged Spartacus and defeated him, killing some six,000 of the rebels.^[39]

The tide seemed to take turned in the war. Crassus' legions were victorious in several more engagements, killing thousands of the rebel slaves and forcing Spartacus to retreat south through Lucania to the straits near Messina. Co-ordinate to Plutarch, Spartacus made a bargain with Cilician pirates to transport him and some ii,000 of his men to Sicily, where he intended to incite a slave revolt and get together reinforcements. He was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and so abandoned the rebel slaves.^[38] Minor sources mention that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding past the rebels equally a means to escape but that Crassus took unspecified measures to ensure the rebels could non cross to Sicily and their efforts were abased.^[40] Spartacus' forces retreated towards Rhegium, Crassus' legions post-obit; upon arrival Crassus built fortifications across the isthmus at Rhegium, despite harassing raids from the rebel slaves. The rebels were nether siege and cut off from their supplies.^[41]

The end of the state of war [edit]

The last events of the war in 71 BC, where the army of Spartacus broke the siege by Crassus' legions and retreated toward the mountains well-nigh Petelia. Shows the initial skirmishes between elements of the two sides, the turn-well-nigh of the Spartacan forces for the final confrontation. Note the legions of Pompey moving in from the north to capture survivors.

The legions of Pompey were returning to Italy, having put down the rebellion of Quintus Sertorius in Hispania. Sources disagree on whether Crassus had requested reinforcements or whether the Senate just took advantage of Pompey's return to Italy just Pompey was ordered to bypass Rome and head south to aid Crassus.^[42] The Senate likewise sent reinforcements under the command of "Lucullus", mistakenly idea past Appian to be Lucius Licinius Lucullus, commander of the forces engaged in the 3rd Mithridatic War only who appears to take been the proconsul of Macedonia, Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, the former's younger brother.^[43] With Pompey's legions marching from the north and Lucullus' troops landing in Brundisium, Crassus realized that if he did not put downwards the slave revolt quickly, credit for the war would get to the general who arrived with reinforcements and he spurred his legions on to end the conflict speedily.^[44]

Hearing of the arroyo of Pompey, Spartacus tried to negotiate with Crassus to bring the conflict to a close before Roman reinforcements arrived.^[45] When Crassus refused, Spartacus and his army broke through the Roman fortifications and headed up the Bruttium peninsula with Crassus'south legions in pursuit.^[46] The legions managed to catch a portion of the rebels – nether the command of Gannicus and Castus – separated from the master army, killing 12,300.^[47]

Even though Spartacus had lost many men, Crassus' legions had likewise suffered greatly. The Roman forces under the command of a cavalry officer named Lucius Quinctius were destroyed when some of the escaped slaves turned to meet them.^[48] The insubordinate slaves were non a professional ground forces and had reached their limit. They were unwilling to flee any farther and groups of men were breaking away from the main forcefulness to independently assault Crassus's legions.^[49]

With subject field breaking downwardly, Spartacus turned his forces effectually and brought his entire forcefulness to affect the legions. In this last stand up, the Boxing of the Silarius River, Spartacus' forces were routed, the vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield.^[50] All the aboriginal historians stated that Spartacus was besides killed on the battleground just his trunk was never found.^[51]

Aftermath [edit]

The rebels of the Third Servile War were annihilated by Crassus. Pompey'due south forces did not direct engage Spartacus's forces but his legions moving from the north were able to capture some 5,000 rebels fleeing the battle, "all of whom he slew".^[52] Afterward this activeness, Pompey sent a dispatch to the Senate, proverb that while Crassus certainly had conquered the slaves in open battle, he had ended the war, thus claiming a large portion of the credit and earning the enmity of Crassus.^[53] While nearly of the rebel slaves were killed on the battleground, some half-dozen,000 survivors were captured by the legions of Crassus. All half dozen,000 were crucified along the Appian Way from Rome to Capua.^[45]

Pompey and Crassus reaped political benefit for having put down the rebellion; both returned to Rome with their legions and refused to disband them, instead camping ground outside Rome.^[15] Both men stood for the consulship of lxx BC, even though Pompey was ineligible because of his youth and lack of service every bit praetor or quaestor.^[54] Both men were elected consul for 70 BC, partly due to the unsaid threat of their armed legions encamped outside the urban center.^{[55] [56]}

It is difficult to determine the extent to which the events of this war contributed to changes in attitudes toward, employ of, and legal rights accorded to Roman slaves. Nevertheless, the cease of the Servile Wars seems to accept coincided with the finish of the period of the most prominent use of slaves in Rome and the kickoff of a new perception of slaves within Roman society and law.

Certainly the defection had shaken the Roman people, who "out of sheer fearfulness seem to have begun to treat their slaves less harshly than before".^[57] The wealthy owners of the latifundia began to reduce the number of agricultural slaves, opting to employ the big pool of formerly dispossessed freemen in sharecropping arrangements.^[58] With the end of Augustus' reign (27 BC – 14 Advertisement), the major Roman wars of conquest ceased until the reign of Emperor Trajan (reigned 98–117 Ad) and with them ended the supply of plentiful and cheap slaves through war machine conquest. This era of peace further promoted the use of freedmen as laborers in agronomical estates.

The legal status and rights of Roman slaves also began to alter. During the time of Emperor Claudius (reigned 41–54 Advertisement), a constitution was enacted that made the killing of an sometime or infirm slave an act of murder and decreed that if such slaves were abased by their owners, they became freedmen.^[59] Under Antoninus Pius (reigned 138–161 AD), laws further extended the rights of slaves, holding owners responsible for the killing of slaves, forcing the sale of slaves when it could be shown that they were existence mistreated and providing a (theoretically) neutral third party to which a slave could entreatment.^[60] While these legal changes occurred much too tardily to exist direct results of the Third Servile War, they represent the legal codification of changes in the Roman mental attitude toward slaves that evolved over decades.

The Tertiary Servile State of war was the terminal servile war and Rome did not see some other slave insurgence of this magnitude again.^[61]

In pop civilization [edit]

• The film Spartacus (1960), which was executive-produced by and starred Kirk Douglas, was based on Howard Fast's novel Spartacus and directed by Stanley Kubrick. The motion-picture show's script was written by Dalton Trumbo, who had been blacklisted during the McCarthyism period of the 1950s. The film's success contributed to the plummet of the blacklist. The phrase "I'thou Spartacus!" from this film has been referenced in a number of other films, television programs, and commercials.
• In 2004, Fast'southward novel was adjusted as a fabricated-for-TV movie by the USA Network, with Goran Višnjić in the master role.
• One episode of 2007–2008 BBC'southward docudrama Heroes and Villains features Spartacus.
• The television serial Spartacus, starring Andy Whitfield, and later Liam McIntyre, in the championship function, aired on the Starz premium cablevision network from January 2010 to April 2013.^{[62] [63]}
• The History Aqueduct's Barbarians Ascension (2016) features the story of Spartacus in its 2d episode entitled "Rebellion".
• The Netflix docudrama TV series Roman Empire features Spartacus as well equally the Battle of the Silarius River in its second season, recounting the story of Gaius Julius Caesar.
• The Third Servile War, and ancient slave revolts in general, play a primal part in Arms of Nemesis past Steven Saylor.

References [edit]

Classical works [edit]

• Appian, Ceremonious wars, Penguin Classics; New Ed edition, 1996. ISBN 0-14-044509-ix.
• Caesar, Julius, Commentarii de Bello Gallico.
• Cicero, M. Tullius. The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero, literally translated by C. D. Yonge, "for Quintius, Sextus Roscius, Quintus Roscius, confronting Quintus Caecilius, and against Verres". London. George Bell & Sons. 1903. OCLC: 4709897
• Florus, Publius Annius, Epitome of Roman History. Harvard Academy Press, 1984. ISBN 0-674-99254-7
• Frontinus, Sextus Julius, Stratagems, Loeb edition, 1925 past Charles E. Bennett. ISBN 0-674-99192-3
• Gaius the Jurist, Gai Institvtionvm Commentarivs Primvs
• Livius, Titus, This History of Rome
• Livius, Titus, Periochae, Yard.Chiliad. Saur Verlag, 1981. ISBN 3-519-01489-0
• Orosius, Histories.
• Plutarchus, Mestrius, Plutarch'southward Lives, "The Life of Crassus" and "The Life of Pompey". Modern Library, 2001. ISBN 0-375-75677-9.
• Sallust, Histories, P .McGushin (Oxford,1992/1994) ISBN 0-19-872140-iv
• Seneca, De Beneficiis
• Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: The Life of Claudius.

Modern books [edit]

• Bradley, Keith. Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World. Bloomington: Indiana University Printing, 1989. ISBN 0-7134-6561-ane.
• Broughton, T. Robert S. Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 2. Cleveland: Case Western University Printing, 1968.
• Davis, William Stearns ed., Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, two Vols, Vol. Two: Rome and the West. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912–13.
• Matyszak, Philip, The enemies of Rome, Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-25124-X.
• Mommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome, Books I-5, Project Gutenberg electronic edition, 2004. ISBN 0-415-14953-3.
• Shaw, Brent. Spartacus and the Slave Wars: a brief history with documents. 2001. [i]
• Smith, William, D.C.L., LL.D., A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.
• Strachan-Davidson, J. Fifty. (ed.), Appian, Civil Wars: Book I, Oxford University Press, 1902 (repr. 1969).
• Strauss, Barry. The Spartacus War Simon & Schuster, 2009. ISBN 1-4165-3205-6.

Multimedia [edit]

• Fagan, Garret G., "The History of Ancient Rome: Lecture 23, Sulla's Reforms Undone", The Didactics Company. [audio recording:CD].

Come across likewise [edit]

• Battle of Baduhenna Wood
• Mercenary State of war
• German Peasants' War

Notes [edit]

• References to the Mommsen text is based on the Project Gutenberg e-text edition of the books. References are therefore given in terms of line numbers within the text file, and not folio numbers as would be the example with a concrete book.
• References to "classical works" (Livy, Plutarch, Appian, etc.) are given in the traditional "Book:verse" format, rather than edition-specific folio numbers.

1. ^ Smith, A Lexicon of Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Servus", p. 1038 Archived 2011-06-05 at the Wayback Motorcar; details the legal and war machine ways by which people were enslaved.
2. ^ Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Servus", p. 1040 Archived 2012-ten-05 at the Wayback Car; Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, 2:33. Smith refers to the purchase of ten,000 slaves from Cilician pirates, while Caesar provides an example of the enslavement of 53,000 captive Aduatuci past a Roman army.
3. ^ Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Servus", p. 1039 Archived 2009-06-21 at the Wayback Car; Livy, The History of Rome, half-dozen:12
4. ^ Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Servus", pp. 1022–39 Archived 2013-07-26 at the Wayback Machine summarizes the complex body of Roman police pertaining to the legal status of slaves.
5. ^ Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Gladiatores", p. 574 Archived 2012-x-05 at the Wayback Machine.
6. ^ Mommsen, The History of Rome, 3233–3238.
7. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, viii:ane–two; Appian, Ceremonious Wars, ane:116; Livy, Periochae, 95:2 Archived 2018-11-07 at the Wayback Machine; Florus, Paradigm, two.8. Plutarch claims 78 escaped, Livy claims 74, Appian "about seventy", and Florus says "thirty or rather more men". "Choppers and spits" is from Life of Crassus.
8. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Plutarch, Crassus, 8:2. Note: Spartacus' status as an auxilia is taken from the Loeb edition of Appian translated by Horace White, which states "... who had once served as a soldier with the Romans ...". However, the translation past John Carter in the Penguin Classics version reads: "... who had in one case fought against the Romans and later on being taken prisoner and sold ...".
9. ^ Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Gladiatores", p. 576 Archived 2012-ten-ten at the Wayback Car.
10. ^ Ivan Duridanov (Иван Дуриданов) (1985). Die Sprache der Thraker [The Language of the Thracians] (in High german). Hieronymus Verlag. pp. 84–85. ISBN978-iii-928-28631-2.
11. ^ Vladimir I. Georgiev (1977). Траките И Техният Език [The Thracians and their Language] (in Bulgarian). Изд-во на Българската академия на науките. p. 95-96.
12. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:one.
13. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, i:116; Florus, Epitome, 2.8; – Florus and Appian make the merits that the slaves withdrew to Vesuvius, while Plutarch simply mentions "a colina" in the account of Glaber's siege of the slave'south encampment.
14. ^ Note: while there seems to be consensus as to the general history of the praetorian expeditions, the names of the commanders and subordinates of these forces varies widely based on the historical account.
15. ^ ^{a b} Appian, Civil Wars, ane:116.
16. ^ Frontinus, Stratagems, Book I, five:twenty–22 and Book Seven:6.
17. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, nine:one–three; Frontinus, Stratagems, Book I, 5:twenty–22; Appian, Civil Wars, ane:116; Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman Democracy, p. 109. Notation: Plutarch and Frontinus write of expeditions under the command of "Clodius the praetor" and "Publius Varinus", while Appian writes of "Varinius Glaber" and "Publius Valerius".
18. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:4–five; Livy, Periochae , 95 Archived 2018-eleven-07 at the Wayback Automobile; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:116; Sallust, Histories, 3:64–67.
19. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 9:3; Appian, Civil War, i:116. Livy identifies the second commander as "Publius Varenus" with the subordinate "Claudius Pulcher".
20. ^ Florus, Paradigm, two.eight.
21. ^ Orosius, Histories five.24.2; Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion, p.96.
22. ^ ^{a b} Plutarch, Crassus, ix:7; Appian, Civil Wars, ane:117.
23. ^ ^{a b} Plutarch, Crassus, ix:5–vi.
24. ^ Historian Barry Strauss On His New Book The Spartacus War (Interview). Simon and Schuster. 2009. Archived from the original on 2021-12-22.
25. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:117; Florus, Epitome, 2.8.
26. ^ Appian, Ceremonious Wars, 1:116–117; Plutarch, Crassus 9:6; Sallust, Histories, 3:64–67.
27. ^ Appian, Ceremonious Wars, 1:117; Plutarch, Crassus nine:7; Livy, Periochae 96 Archived 2017-07-19 at the Wayback Machine. Livy reports that troops under the (former) praetor Quintus Arrius killed Crixus and twenty,000 of his followers.
28. ^ ^{a b c d} Appian, Ceremonious Wars, one:117.
29. ^ Appian, Civil state of war, 1.117; Florus, Epitome, 2.8; Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion, p.121; Smith, Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Gladiatores", p.574 Archived 2012-x-05 at the Wayback Auto. – Notation that gladiator contests as office of some funeral rituals in the Roman Republic were a high laurels, according to Smith. This accords with Florus' passage "He as well historic the obsequies of his officers who had fallen in battle with funerals like those of Roman generals, and ordered his captives to fight at their pyres".
30. ^ Appian, Civil state of war, 1.117; Florus, Epitome, 2.8. Florus does not particular when and how Spartacus intended to march on Rome, but agrees this was Spartacus' ultimate goal.
31. ^ ^{a b} Plutarch, Crassus, 9:7.
32. ^ ^{a b c d} Plutarch, Crassus 10:1;.
33. ^ Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion, p. 96; Plutarch, Crassus 9:vii; Livy, Periochae , 96:6 Archived 2017-07-19 at the Wayback Machine. – Bradley identifies Gaius Cassius Longinus every bit the governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time. Livy too identifies "Caius Cassius" and mentions his co-commander (or sub-commander?) "Cnaeus Manlius".
34. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, ix:5.
35. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, half dozen; Appian, Ceremonious Wars, 1:76–1:104. Plutarch gives a brief synopsis of Crassus's involvement in the war, with 6:half-dozen–7 showing an instance of Crassus as an effective commander. Appian gives a much more detailed account of the unabridged war and subsequent dictatorship, in which Crassus's actions are mentioned throughout.
36. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, i:118; Smith, A Lexicon of Greek and Roman Antiquities, "Exercitus", p.494 Archived 2012-10-06 at the Wayback Motorcar; Appian details the number of legions, while Smith discusses the size of the legions throughout the Roman culture, stating that belatedly republican legions varied from 5,000–6,200 men per legion.
37. ^ ^{a b} Appian, Civil Wars, 1:118.
38. ^ ^{a b c} Plutarch, Crassus, x:1–three.
39. ^ ^{a b} Appian, Civil Wars, 1:119.
40. ^ Florus, Epitome, 2.8; Cicero, Orations, "For Quintius, Sextus Roscius ...", five.ii
41. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 10:four–5.
42. ^ Contrast Plutarch, Crassus, 11:2 with Appian, Ceremonious Wars, i:119.
43. ^ Strachan-Davidson on Appian. 1.120; Appian, Civil Wars, one:120; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:two.
44. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:2.
45. ^ ^{a b} Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120.
46. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Plutarch, Crassus, 10:six. No mention of the fate of the forces who did not break out of the siege is mentioned, although it is possible that these were the slaves under command of Gannicus and Castus mentioned afterward.
47. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11:3; Livy, Periochae, 97:1 Archived 2017-07-nineteen at the Wayback Automobile. Plutarch gives the effigy 12,300 rebels killed. Livy claims 35,000.
48. ^ Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion. p. 97; Plutarch, Crassus, 11:4.
49. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11:5;.
50. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Plutarch, Crassus, xi:vi–7; Livy, Periochae, 97.1 Archived 2017-07-19 at the Wayback Machine. Livy claims some 60,000 rebel slaves killed in this final activeness.
51. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, 1:120; Florus, Paradigm, 2.eight.
52. ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome p.133; Plutarch, Pompey, 21:2, Crassus 11.7.
53. ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 11.7.
54. ^ Appian, Civil Wars, one:121.
55. ^ Appian, Ceremonious Wars, 1:121; Plutarch, Crassus, 12:2.
56. ^ Fagan, The History of Aboriginal Rome; Appian, Civil Wars, 1:121.
57. ^ Davis, Readings in Aboriginal History, p.90
58. ^ Smitha, Frank E. (2006). "From a Republic to Emperor Augustus: Spartacus and Declining Slavery". Retrieved 2006-09-23 .
59. ^ Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 25.2
60. ^ Gaius, Institvtionvm Commentarivs, I:52; Seneca, De Beneficiis, Three:22. Gaius details the changes in the rights of owners to inflict whatever treatment they wished on their slaves, while Seneca details the slaves' right to proper treatment and the creation of a "slave ombudsman".
61. ^ Though there were other slave revolts in the futurity. Encounter, due east.g., Zosimus, Historia Nova, I.71.
62. ^ "Spartacus – Comic-Con 2009 - UGO.com". Tvblog.ugo.com. 29 June 2009. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 24 Feb 2013.
63. ^ "AUSXIP Spartacus: Blood and Sand Television set Evidence Lucy Lawless Sam Raimi & Rob Tapert". Spartacus.ausxip.com. Retrieved 24 February 2013.

External links [edit]

Classical historical works

Works at LacusCurtius.

• Appian'south The Ceremonious Wars.
• Frontinus's The Strategemata.
• Plutarch's, Life of Crassus
• Plutarch'south, Life of Pompey

Works at Livius.org.

• Appian on Spartacus Archived 2016-04-24 at the Wayback Automobile (excerpts from The Civil Wars).
• Florus on Spartacus Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Motorcar (excerpts from the Epitome of Roman History).
• Livy'southward Periochae. 95:2 Archived 2018-11-07 at the Wayback Automobile.
• Livy'southward Periochae. 96:1 and 97:one Archived 2017-07-xix at the Wayback Machine.
• Plutarch on Spartacus Archived 2018-02-16 at the Wayback Car (excerpts from the Life of Crassus).

Works at The Internet Classics Annal.

• Livy'south Histories

Modern works

• William Smith'south, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities at LacusCurtius.
• A scanned page version is also available at The Ancient Library.

Rebel Slave Leader Against Romans,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Servile_War

Posted by: brechtthenery59.blogspot.com

Share this post